A Resource Tool for Businesses and Inventors

This publication is intended for the independent inventor or small company with little knowledge of how to develop new ideas into licensable patents or commercial products. In this guide, we try to answer the most common questions and provide guidance on commercializing an invention. In addition, this guide includes information about trademarks and copyrights.

This booklet is designed to provide useful information and is provided to the reader with the understanding that neither the author, editors, nor the publisher is engaged in rendering paid legal, financial, or professional advice. If such expert assistance is required, the services of a competent professional should be sought. The information provided does not constitute specific recommendations to be used for decision-making purposes by the individual reader.

Introduction ....................................................................................................................…..3

1.        General Patent Information ................................................................................4

What is a patent ..................................................................................…....…......4

Patent contents ...................................................................................…………...4

Conditions for a patent .........................................................................................5

Who may obtain a patent ....................................................................…………...5

When a patent may be obtained ..........................................................................5

Obtaining a Patent .............................................................................…………....6

Recent patent law changes: GATT .....................................................…………....6

Ownership and sale of patent rights .................................................………….......7

2.        Determining Whether to Patent ...........................................................................8

Perform a patent search .......................................................................................8

Will your invention sell?.....................................................................……............9

Evaluate marketability .........................................................................................9

Protecting the invention while assessing marketability .........................………....11

3.        Pursuing a Patent .............................................................................................14

Retain a patent attorney/agent .......................................................…………......14

Drawings .....................................................................................…….................14

Reduce idea to practice: Prototypes ..............................................….………......15

Product testing ...................................................................................………......16

Filing the patent application .................................................................……......16

Process at the Patent and Trademark Office ......................................................16

Estimated patent costs and time ........................................................................18

Funding a patent ...............................................................................................18

Enforcing patent rights .......................................................................................18

Alternatives to patents ........................................................................................19

What to do after getting a patent .......................................................................19

4.        Patent Assignments & Licensing Agreements ...................……………………. 20

What is a patent assignment? ........................................................................... 20

What is a license? ..............................................................................................20

Pros and cons .....................................................................................................20

Selecting the right licensee ...............................................................................21

Contacting the company .................................................................................. .21

Initial presentation ............................................................................................ 22

Negotiating the license agreement ................................................................... 22

What to expect after signing .............................................................................. 23

5.        Starting Your Own Business .............................................…………………...... 24

Start-up capital ................................................................................................. 24

Marketing Issues …………...................................................................................24

The Internet ............................................................………............……............ 26

Registration and Licensing……………………………………..……………….………...?

Other considerations ………………………………………………………………….……?

6.        Financial and Market Research....................................................................... 28

Marketing research .............................………….................................................. 28

Financial research ..............................…………............................................….. 29

Analyzing the results ......................................................................................... 30

7.        Invention Promotion Firms ............................................................................. 37

8.        Special Inventor Assistance & Resources .................................................... 39

Wal-mart Innovation Network (WIN) ................................................................... 39

Support American Made.................................................................................... 39

Wisconsin Innovation Service Center (WISC) .....................................................40

Inventions and Innovation Program .................................................................. 40

9.        Final Thoughts for Inventors ........................................................................... 42

Avoiding tunnel vision ...................................................................................... 42

Assessment of resources .................................................................................... 42

Have we scared you off? ................................................................................... 43

10.        Trademarks & Copyrights ...............................................................................31

Trademarks ....................................................................................................... 31

Trademark notice .............................................................................................. 31

Trademark benefits ........................................................................................... 31

State vs. federal trademarks .............................................................................. 31

Length of trademark protection ......................................................................... 32

Selecting a trademark ....................................................................................... 32

Trademark registration requirements ................................................................. 32

Trademark search .............................................................................................. 33

Estimated trademark costs ................................................................................. 33

Applying for trademark registration .....................................................................33

Copyright protection .......................................................................................... 34

Copyright notice ................................................................................................ 35

Copyright ownership .......................................................................................... 35

Copyright endurance ......................................................................................... 35

Obtaining copyright protection .......................................................................... 35

                Appendices ...................................................................................................... 44

                Vocabulary List ................................................................................................. 44

                Most Often Asked Questions .............................................................................. 45

                Helpful Contacts ................................................................................................ 47

                Free or Inexpensive Publications ...................................................................... 48

                Other Recommended Readings ........................................................................ 49

                Internet Sources of Patent, Trademark, and Copyright Information ................... 50

                N.C. Patent Attorneys & Agents ......................................................................... 51

Sample Confidentiality Agreement (for product development assistance)..........................59

Sample Confidentiality Agreement (prospective licensing companies).............................. 61

Current PTO Fees ............................................................................................................. 63

Associations ......................................................................................................…………... 64

Finding necessary goods and services …………………………………………………………….... ?

General Business Information and Assistance Resources ....................................................66

 This Intellectual Property Guide is intended to help small businesses and inventors in the development of their inventions and in the maintenance of their intellectual property rights. Maybe you’ve already developed an invention. What will you do next? Apply for a patent? Contact manufacturers? Start manufacturing it yourself? These questions must be carefully considered in order to get the full benefit of the efforts put into developing an invention. The purpose of this guide is not to discourage you from proceeding with any particular option, but to educate you about different ways to proceed with your idea and the potential time and financial investments that may be involved. This guide will educate you about patents and provide helpful references and sources of assistance that you may need in order to be successful. We emphasize the utilization of resources at local libraries, universities, and on the Internet. In addition, this guide explores trademark and copyright issues and the protection of internet domain names.

The truth is there are lots of new ideas out there, but only about one patent out of a hundred is commercially successful. Although utility patents and plant patents last 20 years and design patents last 14 years, a new product may only have a few years of commercial life before a better invention replaces it. Usually, this means there is little time to recoup the financial investment made developing and patenting the invention. This financial investment typically includes thousands of dollars spent developing prototypes and obtaining patent protection. Other costs, such as manufacturing and marketing costs, may increase this financial investment by tens of thousands of dollars.

It’s one thing to invent for fun, it’s an entirely different matter to obtain a patent, sell the product to a company, and/or start a business based on the invention. Proceeding with any of these options can quickly become time consuming, costly and overwhelming. In order to be successful, you must be prepared to accept the responsibilities and challenges that arise.

A trademark is used to protect recognizable names for a good or service. Early registration is encouraged in order to be certain that others can be prevented from using the same name or a similar name to reap the benefits of your product or service’s good reputation. Copyright protection is available by Federal laws for literary, dramatic, computer software, musical, artistic, and other intellectual works of authorship. Although federal copyright protection is automatically granted once the work is put in a "fixed form," the registrant of a copyrighted work will receive other legal rights plus better proof of the time of authorship. This guide also explains how to register internet domain names.

The Intellectual Property Guide is intended for the independent inventor or small company with little knowledge of how to develop ideas into licensable patents or commercial products. In this booklet, we try to answer the most common questions and provide guidance on commercializing an invention.

What is a patent?

The patent owner has, for a limited time, the right to exclude others from making, using, offering for sale, or selling the patented invention throughout the United States or importing the invention into the United States. Additionally, in the case of patented processes, discussed below, the patent owner has the right to exclude others from using, offering for sale or selling throughout the United States, or importing into the United States, products made by that process. There are three different types of patents:

Utility patents may be granted to anyone who invents a process, machine, article of manufacture, or composition of matter that is new, non obvious and useful. In addition, utility patents may be granted on any new and useful improvement of a process, machine, article of manufacture, or composition of matter. Machines, articles of manufacture, and compositions of matter are easy to recognize. They are things such as pencil sharpeners, engines, computers, and chemicals. A process is more difficult to recognize. For example, this can be a surgical procedure or a process for manufacturing a chemical. A process patent may also be granted on a new way to use unpatentable material. Utility patents are granted for a term beginning on the date the patent issues and ends twenty years from the filing date.

Design patents may be granted to anyone who invents a new, original, and ornamental design for an article of manufacture. It only protects the appearance of an article, not its structure or utilitarian features; for example, a design patent could protect the appearance of a piece of furniture, but not its structure. These patents are granted for a term of 14 years beginning on the date the patent issues.

Plant patents may be granted to anyone who invents or discovers and asexually reproduces any distinct and new variety of plant. Plant patents will not be granted for a tuber propagated or a plant found in an uncultivated state; for example, no patents are granted for potatoes or for a plant found in the wilderness. Plant patents are granted for a term that begins on the date the patent issues and ends twenty years from the filing date. As with utility patents, term extensions may be granted in certain instances.

For certain delays attributable to the PTO, the term of the patent may be extended, but in no case will such an extension be more than 5 years. Generally, a patent affords protection against infringement only within the jurisdiction of the government by which it is issued. Therefore, it is necessary to take out a patent in each country for which patent protection is desired by using the proper steps for international patenting.

Patent contents

Every patent contains: (1) a short title of the invention; (2) a grant to the patentee, his/her heirs, of the right to exclude others from making, using, offering for sale or selling the invention throughout the United States or importing the invention into the United States (in the case of a process patent: the right to exclude others from using, offering for sale or selling throughout the United States, or importing into the United States, products made by that process); (3) a copy of the specification; and (4) drawing (s), if necessary.

The specification is essentially a description of the invention. The specification must contain: (1) a detailed description of the invention; (2) claims to the invention; (3) abstract of the disclosure; (4) oath or declaration; and (5) drawings, if required to understand the invention. The application must state particularly what the inventor believes the invention is. An application must contain sufficient detail for a person of ordinary skill in the art to practice the invention. The best mode requirement requires the inventor to disclose the best mode known to him or her at the time of filing of carrying out the invention. Therefore, you can not obtain a valid patent if you have withheld a better version of the invention.

The claims are the most important part of the patent application. They set forth the exact bounds of the invention in much the same way a property deed sets forth the exact bounds of a plot of land. Thus, the claims describe the perimeter of the invention.

The oath or declaration must be signed by the inventor stating that: (1) they believe themselves to be the true, original and first inventor (s); (2) they have reviewed and understand the contents of the application; and (3) they acknowledge their duty to disclose all information known to be material to patentability of the application.

Obtaining a patent

Patents are obtained by filing an application with the Patent Office. The application is then examined by a specially trained examiner who grants the patent if the requirements are met. The process of obtaining a patent is described in detail in Chapter 3.

Conditions for a patent

As stated previously, a utility patent must be novel, useful, and non obvious. Design and plant patents have slightly different requirements that are beyond the scope of this guide.

Novelty – An invention must be novel in order to be patented. That is, a patent is barred if the invention has been anticipated by certain events that may occur prior to invention or the filing of an application. Such events are prior art. Prior art may be an act – an offer for sale, a use of the invention, a prior invention, or it may be a document – a prior foreign patent or publication, or it may be a United States patent. Such prior art can prevent you from obtaining a patent only if it is the same as the claimed invention (i.e., it has all the elements and limitations of a given claim; claims are discussed below).

Statutory bar focuses on events that may occur more than one year prior to the inventor’s patent application and which, if they do, prohibit a patent grant. But after that one year grace period, statutory bar occurs and the inventor (s) loses the right to a patent. Anticipation events, defined by the novelty provisions, have no such grace period; if an anticipation occurs prior to invention, the inventor simply has no right to a patent.

Following are the events raising statutory bar, if they occur more than one year prior to application:

Domestic (Acts within the U.S.): Prior patent by anyone, printed publication, public use, sale.

Foreign: Prior patent by anyone, printed publication, prior patent application by the applicant (but only if a patent is granted prior to domestic application).

Following are the anticipation events that defeat a claim of novelty if they occur anytime prior to invention:

Domestic (Acts within the U.S.): Prior patent by anyone, printed publication, knowledge or unabandoned, unsuppressed, unconcealed invention by others, use by others, or description in another’s previously filed and eventually granted application.

Foreign: Prior patent by anyone or printed publication.

Useful To be patentable, an invention must have some utility; that is, the invention must be useful for some purpose. An invention that is inoperative is not a useful invention. Utility is not presumed, but must be disclosed as a part of the patent application.

Nonobvious Despite the fact that one particular prior art does not anticipate an invention exactly, an invention may be obvious, and thus barred from patenting. An invention is obvious if a person of ordinary skill in the art would find it obvious to modify the prior art in such a way to obtain the invention whose patenting is sought. Additionally, obviousness may be determined by combining what is disclosed by several pieces of prior art. This provision bars persons from obtaining a patent by modifying prior art in such a way that would be obvious to one of ordinary skill in the art.

Who may obtain a patent

In the United States, only human beings can be inventors. The ownership of every invention and patent application begins with the inventor(s); however, the inventor(s) may be obligated by the terms of an employment or other agreement to assign their rights. If two or more persons make an invention jointly, then they must apply for a patent as joint inventors.

For patenting purposes, an inventor is anyone who contributes to the conception of the invention—that is, whoever helps form the idea of the invention to the point where it would work when reduced to practice. "Reduced to practice" means to have obtained a working model of the invention. Someone who did not contribute to the conception but helped reduce it to practice cannot be cited in the patent as an inventor. For example, someone that just conducted experiments in order to obtain a working model and did not offer any ideas that contributed to the invention cannot be cited as an inventor. If the inventor is dead, insane or otherwise legally incapacitated, refuses to execute an application, or cannot be found, an application may be made by someone else, such as a legal representative or guardian.

When a patent may be obtained

A patent can be obtained when the inventor has conceived of an idea in enough detail to be reduced to practice. However, the application must be filed within one year of public disclosure or else the invention is barred by the novelty requirement. In other words, once the invention has been offered for public use or sale in this country for more than a year, the invention is considered as being in the public domain and cannot be patented. The inventor should realize that it may take several months to actually prepare and file the application, so if the invention is publicly disclosed, the application preparation should begin shortly thereafter. Fortunately, in order to quickly get a filing date, and avoid the one year statutory bar, a provisional application may be filed. The provisional application does not require claims, which are time-consuming to draft. Yet, a regular application, including claims, must be still be filed no more than a year after filing a provisional application.

The only exception to the one year rule in the U.S. is the "experimental use" exception. This rule permits some public use to occur for more than a year before applying for the patent if it will help perfect the invention. However, this rule does not apply to situations where the use or sale of the device is mainly for profit and the experimentation is merely incidental. For example, market acceptance testing does not qualify as "experimental use." It will be the patent office examiner’s responsibility to determine whether the scope and length of the experimental activity is reasonable.

Ownership and sale of patent rights

Both patents and patent applications may be bought, sold or transferred in whole or in part like any other piece of property. The inventor may sell all or part of his interest in the patent application or patent to anyone by a properly worded assignment.

An assignment is a legal document or contract, preferably drafted with the assistance of an attorney, which states to whom the property is being transferred. Assignments and other transfers of interest in patents and patent applications can be recorded in the PTO. Recordation in the Patent Office is not required, but it works much like real estate recording statutes to protect a buyer against subsequent transfers of patent rights. The recording of an assignment is not a determination by the Patent Office that the assignment is valid or effective.

After a patent is assigned, the assignee becomes the owner of the patent and has the same rights as the original patentee. A conditional assignment can be used, which passes ownership of the patent and is regarded as absolute until cancelled by the parties or by a court of law.

 Performing a patent search

The first step you might want to take to determine if you should pursue a patent is to perform a preliminary patent search (also known as a prior art search). This serves as an initial way to look at what has already been patented.

A patent search should be performed before pursuing a patent for several reasons. First, you need to make sure that others do not have exclusive rights to the invention. If you did not find your product already on the market, do not assume that it is not already patented. If you do develop and market a product that someone else already holds a patent on, you will most likely be sued for patent infringement. Second, you cannot patent an invention that has already been patented – even if the patent has already expired. You want to avoid wasting money on a patent application that may not be granted. Third, a patent search may also provide helpful insight on the state of the art in a particular field.

You can save time and money by performing an initial patent search yourself. There are several library and on-line resources that can assist your search:

• D.H. Hill Library, NC State University Libraries:

The DH Hill Library on the NCSU campus contains the only patent depository in North Carolina. The reference librarians are very helpful and will assist you in conducting your own patent search using a CD-ROM database and the Automated Patent Search System. This is a free service; the only cost you may have to bear is that of copies. Review their website (URL: http://www.lib.ncsu.edu/libraries/risd/govdocs/) or contact the Government Information & Documents Department at the D.H. Hill Library to find out their hours of operation: Office Phone: (919) 515-2936; fax: (919) 515-8264; reference questions: (919) 515-2935.

• United States Patent and Trademark Office, Washington, DC:

The Scientific and Technical Information Center located at Crystal Plaza #3, 2021 Jefferson Davis Highway, Arlington, VA, has over 120,000 volumes of scientific and technical books, about 90,000 bound volumes of periodicals devoted to science and technology, the official journals of 77 foreign patent organizations, and over 40 million foreign patents on paper, microfilm, microfiche, and CD-ROM, all available for public use. It is open to the public 8:30 a.m. to 5:00 p.m., Monday through Friday, except federal holidays. The Patent Search Room (same location) is provided where the public may search and examine United States patents granted since 1790. Patents are arranged according to the U.S. Patent Classification System of over 400 classes and over 136,000 subclasses. The Patent Search Room contains a set of United States patents arranged in numerical order and a complete set of the Official Gazette. It is open 8 a.m. to 8 p.m., Monday through Friday, except on Federal holidays.

Additionally, the PTO has a website (URL: http://www.uspto.gov/) including a database in which patent searches may be conducted. In addition to providing information on patents, trademarks, related rules, and the application process (including application forms you can download), this site has links to USPTO's free patent databases: the U.S. Patent Bibliographic Database, a database of front-page information from U.S. patents issued from January 1, 1976 to the most recent issue date, and the AIDS Patent Database, a database of the full text and images of AIDS-related patents issued by the US, Japanese, and European patent offices.

• Micro Patent (URL: http://www.micropat.com/):

Micro Patent’s Patent Web and Trademark Web sites (linked to this site) enable you to view newly published patent applications, research patentability, or conduct a patent or trademark search.

• IBM Patent Server (URL: http://www.patents.ibm.com/):

IBM’s Intellectual Property network lets you search and view patent documents from the United States, Europe and Japan as well as patent applications published by the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO). It provides free access to more than 2 million U.S. patents issued since 1971, and images of all U.S. patents issued after 1974.

• STO Internet Patent Search System (URL: http://sunsite.unc.edu/patents/intropat.html/):

This is the home page for Source Translation & Optimization's (STO) Internet Patent Search System in which you may perform a patent search and/or access information on the patenting process.

• NCLive (URL: http://www.nclive.org/)

This is a recently implemented state program through which North Carolina public libraries, community college libraries, UNC system libraries, and libraries serving the thirty-six members of the NC Association of Independent Colleges and Universities offer patrons access to a core group of reference and research materials on-line. This means you are most likely near a library through which you can have free access to a number of electronic resources useful for a patent search. Library staff can assist you in using the NC Live resources.

In the process, you should list any patents that seem similar to your invention and read them thoroughly. If the invention is disclosed in an expired patent or any prior publication, anyone can produce it without regard for patent laws and no one has exclusive rights to it. However, the invention cannot be patented again. If a current patent claims any part of the invention, its owner has exclusive rights until it expires.

These preliminary patent searches will help you evaluate the uniqueness and feasibility of your invention, but they may not be entirely complete. Developing prototypes and filing patent applications can be expensive and very disappointing if a patent or some other bar to obtaining a patent that was missed is found later. Therefore, if your preliminary patent search appears promising, you should also have a professional patent search performed. This can be done by a registered patent attorney, a registered patent agent, or a specialized patent search company. A patent agent is a technically trained person who has passed a special bar exam to practice before the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office. Patent agents are limited to prosecuting a patent application, i.e., obtaining a patent. A patent attorney has also passed the U.S. Patent and Trademark Bar Examination, but is also permitted to draft contracts and provide other general legal services. Patent attorneys and agents are more familiar with researching the wide range of product categories and fields of research. They also understand better how to evaluate claims or lack of claims with similar patents. The patent attorney/agent’s letter detailing a positive search may be valuable in raising capital and encourages others to help in product development. The patent attorney/agent will also make a recommendation on whether you should pursue a patent and undergo the expected costs. Many invention marketing firms also include patent searches in their list of services (Discussed in Chapter 8).

Will your invention sell?

While many inventors invent just for the fun of it, more often than not, an inventor is looking to profit from his or her invention. Thomas Edison once said, "Anything that won’t sell, I don’t want to invent." Too often, however, inventors assume that patenting the invention will guarantee profitability and success. Unfortunately, this assumption could not be further from the truth.

No matter what problem the invention solves, you should first determine if it is a problem that concerns other people. It is also important to ascertain whether people are willing to consider buying a new product to solve the problem. Obtaining a patent can be a long and expensive process and the time and money required can be easily wasted if the product is not commercially successful afterwards. Therefore, before rushing out and spending thousands of dollars to obtain a patent, you would be wise to first conduct some research to determine if the invention is a potentially marketable product. While those close to you may believe the invention is a sure fire success, marketing research that goes beyond friends and relatives should be performed to obtain valid opinions.

 Evaluate marketability

Evaluating the marketability of your product is very important in deciding if you should patent because it will help you to discern the potential profitability of your product, as well as discover potential competition. Although you may think there is no other product like yours, there may be products and/or services on the market that solve the same problem as your invention. Unless you have a truly new product to meet a totally new need, competition is likely. These competitors should be identified to help evaluate the potential success of your product. This is a step that many eager inventors exclude only to later regret having done so.

Some basic considerations to make about potential profitability are:

• What are consumers looking for?

• Does the product meet their needs?

• Is the price reasonable considering what needs it meets?

• Does it meet the needs of a select few, or a large number of people?

• Is it a fad item?

• Will demand be seasonal?

• Is the market for the product a growth or mature market?

• How large is the industry and market for the product?

• Are confidentiality agreements made with those to whom the invention has been revealed? (See next section)

To help further evaluate marketability and all current competitive products:

• Talk to experts in the field of the invention who know the product type and market and ask their opinion on its need.

• Make a list of different categories the product might be related to.

• Search through different company and product catalogs.

• Browse websites of companies and products related to your idea.

• Go through stores and search for your product concept.

• Study any product you feel is closely related.

• Attend trade shows, but be careful not to divulge too much information about the invention. Collect literature and business cards.

Some sources to use in performing your marketing research include:

Other helpful sources generally available at your local library include:

The electronic resources provided in the N.C. Live Program are also helpful for market research, particularly Business Source Elite, Hoover’s Company Profiles & Capsules, and various periodicals databases. For more on NC Live, see Perform a Patent Search, p. 8.

If you need assistance in performing your market research, there are several books that discuss marketing research and are available at your local library and most bookstores. See the Appendices of this booklet for useful books, journals, references, and websites.

Confidential Disclosure Agreements

While it is important to keep all information about your idea confidential until a patent is obtained, you should avoid being too secretive or overprotective. Fortunately, after the invention has been made public, you are granted one year in which to file an application, otherwise you are barred from obtaining a patent. To successfully develop an invention, it is often necessary to reveal the invention to others, including potential customers, manufacturers, and salespeople. To protect yourself, you should use Confidential Disclosure Agreements (also called confidentiality agreements, proprietary information agreements, secrecy agreements, and non-disclosure agreements). These agreements will state that the person(s) you give information to have to hold that information in the strictest confidence and agree to not use the idea for their own gain. You should consult with a licensed attorney to develop an agreement suitable for your specific situation for contractual purposes. There are sample Confidentiality Agreements in section H of the Appenidix.

Protecting the invention while assessing marketability

You may be apprehensive about performing market research in lieu of applying for a patent for fear of someone else "getting a jump" on the idea. But recall that U.S. patent law protects the first one to invent, not the first to file a patent application; however, this is not so in foreign countries. Foreign countries provide priority to the first to submit an application. In addition to using Confidential Disclosure Agreements, there are two more ways to protect the invention before actually filing for a patent:

1. Maintain a dated and signed invention diary/notebook

2. File a disclosure document with the Patent and Trademark Office

Maintain a dated invention notebook

To provide initial protection of your idea or invention, you should write a detailed description of it in an invention notebook. This will serve as a daily diary of legal evidence which shows you have been working diligently to make the invention work. In addition to providing a record of the idea’s conception, the work diary is also a good way of monitoring where you are in your invention process and what remains to be done.

Imagine that after being granted a patent and having a commercially successful product, you receive a notice of a lawsuit from someone claiming to be the original inventor of the product. The court would need to determine who was the original inventor based on evidence. The invention diary could be enough evidence to convince the court that you are the inventor. Quite often, a completed work diary has been submitted in court as evidence to be accepted by the court to validate the original inventor’s claim.

For the best protection, the following guidelines should be followed when keeping an invention notebook:

• Write a detailed description of the idea or invention and all advantages in a bound notebook with numbered pages.

• Make an entry whenever there’s a change in the invention or there is evidence of progress.

• Write with permanent ink and cross out mistakes by marking through errors with a line. Never erase or "white-out" mistakes.

• Include test results, sketches, and drawings, and sign and date the bottom of each page.

• Have at least two witnesses sign and date each page. These should be people who understand the idea or invention.

• Don’t erase anything or leave any large blank spaces within text.

• Fill in blank areas with a couple of diagonal lines so you can’t be accused of making entries after the page was signed.

• If you leave a blank page, write on it "blank page".

• Make at least one entry per month to avoid looking like the project was abandoned.

• Research data related to pending or issued patents should not be destroyed.

• If notes are kept on a computer, make entries at the end of each day. Each daily entry should then be printed out, signed, and witnessed. The final printed, signed, and witnessed document should be pasted in a notebook.

• Notarization is not a legal requirement

• Remember, it’s never too late. You can start anytime by entering a history of what’s been done to date.

File a disclosure document with the PTO

Another way to prove the idea’s date of conception is to file a disclosure document describing the invention with the PTO’s Document Disclosure Program. The benefits provided by the Disclosure Document will depend upon the adequacy of the disclosure. It is recommended that the document be clear and complete explanation of the manner and process of making and using the invention. This description must be in sufficient detail to enable a person having ordinary knowledge in the field of the invention to make and use the invention. When the nature of the invention permits, a drawing or sketch should be included.

The document is not prior art nor does it provide a filing date or domestic priority. It is only good for proof of the conception of the invention and legally is given no more weight other than proof. The PTO keeps the document on file for two years. At that time, it’s destroyed unless it’s referred to in a separate letter in a related patent application.

Note that you cannot just file the disclosure document and do nothing with the invention in the two years following. If in the event another inventor tries to claim credit for the invention, you will only receive full benefit of the disclosure if you can also prove you’ve been working diligently to complete the invention or if you file the patent application.

To participate in this program, the following materials must be sent to the PTO:

1. Photocopies of the entire Disclosure Document (including written matter, drawings, sketches, or photographs). This material must be on white paper having dimensions not to exceed 8½ by 11 inches (21.6 by 28.0 cm.) with each page numbered. Text and drawings must be sufficiently dark to permit reproduction with commonly used office copying machines. Oversized papers, even if foldable to the above dimensions, will not be accepted. Attachments such as videotapes and working models will not be accepted and will be returned.

2. A separate signed cover letter stating that it is submitted by, or on behalf of, the inventor and requesting that the material be received into the Disclosure Document Program. A sample would run as follows:

"The undersigned, being the inventor of the disclosed invention, requests that the enclosed papers be accepted under the Disclosure Document Program, and that they be preserved for a period of two years."

3. A fee, in the form of a check or money order, made payable to "Commissioner of Patents and Trademarks." In fiscal year 1998 the fee is $10. The fee is subject to change annually.

 Mail the materials and payment to:

Box DD

Assistant Commissioner for Patents

Washington, DC 20231

They will not return the original submission. The PTO will mail you a notice with an identifying number and date of receipt in the PTO. They will emphasize that you should rely on the Disclosure Document only as evidence and that you should file a patent application if you seek patent protection.

For up-to-date information visit the website at URL: http://www.uspto.gov/web/offices/pac/disdo.html

Retaining a patent attorney/agent

Regardless of who you hire to perform the complete patent search, a patent attorney or agent should be retained if you intend to have a patent application filed. While the process is not impossible for the average inventor, it is long, complicated, and very difficult. Typically, the best protection will be obtained if an attorney/agent is used. Some patent attorneys/agents specialize in certain areas of inventions and you should try to find one with in-depth knowledge in your area. If you can’t, remember that the more you do to help, the less the attorney has to charge. For example, if you search as much literature as possible, including patents, initial attorney consultations will accomplish more, and further searches will cost less.

For help in finding a patent attorney/agent, refer to the list of North Carolina patent attorneys and agents on the PTO’s website at URL: http://www.uspto.gov/go/attorney/region/, or you can obtain a list, organized by geographic region, from the U.S. Government Printing Office: Superintendent of Documents; Post Office Box 371954; Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15250-7954; 202/512-1800. To avoid any surprises, know what the hourly and fixed rates are up front. In selecting one, make sure you can work with him/her because you will have a long-term relationship together. This will be someone to include in your product development strategy and patent attorneys usually make good licensing attorneys too.

Drawings

There are three types of drawings that will be helpful in your new product development process and your pursuit of a patent.

Artist’s concept drawing. This drawing is a black and white line drawing that should be done by a good artist early in your product development process. While it’s not an engineering or blue print drawing, it will give you and those you initially work with a better perspective of what you are trying to accomplish.

Engineering drawing. If you know you will want a manufacturing company to produce your product, you should look into having a machine shop or prototype shop produce engineering drawings for you after the prototype is complete and tested. Manufacturers often look for these 3-D cross-section dimensional blueprint drawings for accurate manufacturing pricing.

Patent drawing. These are necessary for utility and design patent applications. The PTO has complex and specific guidelines for patent application drawings, so these drawings should be completed by a patent draftsperson. Although you can find a draftsman on your own, your patent attorney/agent should be able to refer you to one he/she regularly works with.

See the Appendix, section Finding necessary goods and services, for tips on how to locate someone to draw your product.

Reduce the idea to practice: Prototypes

After an idea is conceived, it should be reduced to practice. It’s one matter to come up with a bright idea and write it down in an inventor’s workbook. It’s an entirely different matter to actually demonstrate that the invention works. While a prototype is not required to apply for a patent, having one can be very helpful. Not only will it help you in your product development efforts, but it will also give you a stronger claim to the idea if you have it reduced to practice before someone else.

Developing a prototype requires ingenuity, trial, and error. The process can usually be divided into two stages.

Rough prototype. This prototype needs to only demonstrate the working principles of the invention and is useful for ironing out the technical or design details. Given it’s purpose, it may be sufficient for you to "gerryrig" the invention using glue, cardboard, tape, etc. Some resources for other supplies you may need can be found in the Yellow Pages, the Thomas Register of

American Manufacturers (URL: http://www.thomasregister.com/), trade and industrial journals, and arts and crafts magazines. Retail stores and craft centres can also be helpful. This stage saves you from spending money on a final design that doesn’t work.

Working model prototype. This prototype should be of higher quality than the first prototype and be suitable to show potential customers. Remember to use confidentiality agreements and include the words "Confidential Prototype" on the prototype if you do show it to others. The materials you use should be as close to the final materials needed as possible. As such, this prototype will cost much more than the first one. You may even need to contract with a custom designer or machine shop.

There are two ways to have these two prototypes developed. On one hand, you can let an industrial design house take the entire project. Their services would include doing the industrial design, drawings, prototype developing, developing the production prototype (working model) and product testing. Alternatively, you could do some of the work yourself and use professionals as it is needed. This process would consist of five stages:

In the last stage, you may need to locate a small prototype shop that specializes in the materials the product will need. For example, if the product will be plastic, locate a plastic tooling company. If the product is made of metal, look for a machine shop. Keep in mind that a job shop, which specializes in customized products and may have engineers with prototype experience, will be most willing to devote time to developing a good working prototype. Some universities or engineering schools also provide prototyping services at a low cost. Check with a local university or engineering school for availability of these services.

Product testing

Part of developing a prototype involves testing the product. Many mass merchandisers will not purchase your product if you do not have it tested by a consumer testing laboratory first. The testing should include safety as well as operational tests.

Often laboratories at universities also offer testing services. Contact the Technology Transfer office or appropriate department of a local university to find out whether the university’s labs provide testing services.

For instructions on how to locate other necessary testing services, see Finding necessary goods and services in the Appendices.

Filing the patent application

You can obtain a hard copy of the brochure "General Information Concerning Patents," which includes a patent application, from the U. S. Government Printing Office (202/783-3238). The PTO’s website includes a guide to filing a utility patent application at URL: http://www.uspto.gov/web/offices/pac/utility/utility.htm/.

The requirements for the patent application include:

• A written document with an enabling specification (a satisfactory description of the invention with at least one claim) and an oath or declaration that the inventor is the original inventor.

• A complete drawing, where necessary.

• The appropriate filing fee. (See "Estimated patent costs and time" below.)

As mentioned earlier, the process of filing a patent application can be very challenging, and you will receive the best results through the use of a patent attorney or agent.

Process at the Patent and Trademark Office

For purposes of this discussion, let’s say you employ a patent attorney for filing your application. Once the application is received at the PTO, your attorney will receive a filing receipt with the filing date and serial number for the application. At this time, you will also be issued a Foreign Filing License which entitles you to file foreign patent applications based on the U.S. application. In rare instances, for national security reasons, the PTO will withhold a Foreign Filing License.

The application is then checked for any deficiencies. If any of the above requirements are missing, the application will be cited as incomplete and will be refused acceptance. The filing fee may be refunded, but a handling fee or surcharge may be applied. You will be given a specified period of time to complete the application (furnish the missing materials). If the application is complete and meets filing requirements, it goes through a classification procedure. Then the application is forwarded to the proper PTO Department for examination.

The patent office receives over 200,000 patent applications per year. Depending on the backlog of unexamined applications your examiner has, it may be several months before yours is formally reviewed. The examiner will start the process by performing an in-depth patent search and also search related publications to verify your claims. This also includes searching foreign patents. If a claim is accepted, it means that the claim is patentable and should be incorporated into a patent. During the examining process, the examiner will determine whether or not your disclosure of the invention enables the reader to make a functioning model of your invention – based on the description alone. This is a very important requirement in having a patent application granted.

Most applications go through two or three office actions which are given in the form of letters. If one or more claims are rejected by the examiner, a letter will be sent to your attorney. A proper response will have to be filed within a period of time or the application will be considered abandoned. After receiving the response, the application will be reviewed again and another office action will be sent to your attorney. It may be a Notice of Allowance indicating approval of the patent application. It may also be another rejection that you would have to respond to. Usually the second or third action is marked as the final decision.

If during the process, you decide that the invention’s value is comparatively too low, or the claims allowed will not be enough to protect you in potential markets, an application can be abandoned. This would avoid further prosecution and associated fees. However, you are not necessarily entitled to a refund of any fees paid up to this point. If you develop a patentable improvement to the invention before the examination proceeding ends, you can file a

continuation-in-part to add the part of the invention not previously disclosed; however, the new part of the invention will only receive the filing date of the continuation-in-part and not of the first filing. If your original application did not clearly distinguish claims from prior inventions, you can also file a continuing application to change the claims before the examination ends. However, the changes to the claims must have been disclosed in the original filing, or else a continuation-in-part must be filed to add new disclosure. These afterthoughts can be expensive and support why it is beneficial to hire an expert to help file your application.

If the final decision is a rejection, you may request a personal interview with your examiner. If he/she agrees, you can meet at the PTO with your attorney to plead your case. This would be your chance to demonstrate your prototype, discuss claims, and suggest how the claims could be reworded. Examiners are evaluated primarily by the number of applications they process, which means there is no guarantee they will spend very much time on one application. Therefore, it is possible that once rejected claims will be allowed later.

Estimated patent costs and time

The above PTO fees reflect a 50% discount allowed for small business entities and independent inventors, but are only a portion of the fees you may have to pay. In addition, fees change with each fiscal year; for up-to-date PTO fees, check their website,

URL: http://www.uspto.gov/web/offices/ac/qs/ope/fees.htm

As you can see, the cost of pursuing and maintaining a patent can cost between $7,500 and $18,000. These potential costs are very important to consider when deciding to apply for a patent. You should evaluate carefully whether the potential profitability of your product exceeds this amount of money.The process of obtaining a patent requires an average of two years, but can take up to four years. It is best to prepare an estimated timeline for your patent application to help you plan.

 Funding a patent

Contrary to popular belief, there is no free money available to help with obtaining a patent. One way to raise money would be to have a self-financing patent. This would involve marketing and selling the product for less than one year and using the profits to fund the patent. Often, licensing agreements provide that the licensee reimburse and pay for patent costs. However, publicly disclosing the invention before filing an application prohibits you from being able to file for any foreign patents. Probably the best source of initial outside funds would be from friends or relatives. Remember to employ confidentiality agreements if you choose this option.

Enforcing patent rights

The U.S. Patent and Trademark Office (PTO) does not monitor commercial transactions for possible infringement incidences or enforce patent rights against potential infringers. It is the responsibility of the patent owner to discover infringing activity. As a patent owner, you may seek both an injunction against an infringer, as well as the recovery of monetary damages. The cost of this option depends on the complexity of the case, but legal expenses alone can easily reach into the tens of thousands. Many patent infringement cases are settled fairly quickly, however. An alternative to suing would be to offer the infringer a license to make the patented invention. This license could include an initial base payment, as well as royalty payments for each unit the licensee makes, uses, or sells. Licenses are discussed more in depth in Chapter 4.

The PTO does not guarantee the validity of a granted patent. A patent may be found by a court to be invalid, and therefore unenforceable, at any time during its lifetime. For example, if the inventors listed in the patent turn out to be incorrect, the patent could be declared invalid.

What to do after getting a patentAfter receiving a patent, you will face many choices and problems. How should you manufacture, market, distribute, and sell the product? Should you start a business that makes and sells the product? Should you sell your patent to a manufacturer through an assignment? Should you license it to another company for a royalty and let that company sell the product? These are just a few of many decisions that you will have to make and implement after thorough research and evaluation. The next two chapters discuss the advantages and disadvantages of licensing and manufacturing and will help you determine which option is best for you.

Figure 1

More often than not, an inventor’s goal is to profit from his invention. For many inventors, forming an agreement with a manufacturer and/or distributor is the best way to make money on an invention when the costs of developing, manufacturing and marketing the invention are beyond their means. There are two types of agreements that may be used to transfer intellectual property rights: a patent assignment (i.e., one-time buyout) or a license.

What is a patent assignment?

As mentioned earlier, patent law provides for the transfer or sale of a patent through the use of a properly worded assignment. If this occurs between an inventor and a manufacturer, it is often in the form of a one-time buyout in which the inventor sells ownership of the patent for one flat fee. Upon acceptance of the fee, all claims of ownership to the patent are relinquished to the company. The company then has full control of the patent. Many manufacturers use this to get the inventor out of the picture quickly and cheaply. This is also a quick and easy option for the inventor, but it may result in the inventor receiving something than a fair profit. Thus, this option is rarely recommended.

What is a license?

A license is a legal contract that gives someone else, like a company, permission to make, use, or sell your invention. It is possible to sell a license to your invention to others both before and after a patent is issued. This is a legal contract, best written by an attorney who specializes in this field. Patent attorneys and many other corporate attorneys, especially those that are experts in intellectual property are best suited to draft these agreements. A license contract designates a royalty for the inventor, usually as a percentage of the sales of the invention.

Pros and cons

Licensing your product to a company is usually the least risky method of profiting from your invention, since starting a new business has its own unique set of risks. Unfortunately, licensing also gives most of the control and profits to the company because they bear most of the financial risk if the idea fails. However, some profit from royalties is better than no profits if you fail to develop your idea or your business goes bankrupt. Keep in mind that a license may be limited in certain ways. For example, a field-of-use license can be limited to certain industries, uses, or limited geographic territories. The advantage of such a license is that you have greater control in negotiation and may still have rights in areas not licensed.

By licensing your invention, you also eliminate the distractions associated with manufacturing such as developing a profitable distribution network, finding good employees, finding adequate capital, and dealing with payables or receivables. Without these distractions, you can focus on developing other ideas you may have. An added advantage of this option is that you retain much, if not all, of the ownership in the patent.

Selecting the right licensee

You should start the process of finding a licensee by preparing a list of as many prospective companies as you can. Use local library and on-line resources to aid your search. One place to begin looking for companies would be in the Thomas Register of American Manufacturers, available in book form at your local public library or online at URL: http://www.thomasregister.com/. The register details manufacturers for a variety of industries. By looking at the industry particular to your product, you can locate several manufacturers who may be interested in adding your product to their line. Other sources of company information include:

• Hoover’s Standard (like the Thomas Register, available in book form or on-line): URL: http://www.hoovers.com/

• Encyclopaedia of American Industries

• NC Manufacturers Register

• NC Business Directory

• Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) website, URL: http://edgar.sec.gov/index.html

• If the company is a public business (i.e., if it sells stock to the public), you can call them and request an annual report.

In preparing your list, consider each company’s product line, distribution breadth, management, marketing style, any legal troubles that may exist, product seasonality, company size, annual sales, etc. Companies with nationwide distribution are best. Keep in mind that large companies may be more interested in a deal because they have more manufacturing, marketing, and advertising capabilities than smaller companies.

Contacting the company

It is extremely difficult to find companies willing to license an invention, especially when it involves an unproven concept for a new product. Many companies do not accept ideas provid